Cultural Competency in Health Promotion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cultural Competency in Health Promotion - Essay Example In this way, communication during health care is limited because the patient has no obligation to communicate his/her feelings. Lack of health education in our culture has led to poor medical care hence the inadequacy in the knowledge about the health services being offered. Some cultural groups have a poor decision leader who must be available for a decision to be arrived at. To overcome the above problems, there must be a development of culturally competent practices that involve self analysis and change of attitude in various cultures. Health care providers should expand their knowledge and not only focus on culture differences while striving to understand the cultural dynamics affecting medical practice and healthcare in general. They should learn about cultures they sever through, they ought to know patients assessment techniques, readings and community activities. Medical practitioners should improve on the cross-cultural communication by being aware of the difference in social norms and knowledge of different languages and lifestyles. The use of assessing health literacy, interpreters and the bilingual patient education materials in educating the community on health matters (Spector, 2009) can play an important role especially from the training period of the medics. Involvement of the community in health matters through health fairs, ethnic festival participation and constant communication with cultural decision makers. These leaders help in providing cultural competent care by strengthening communication ties. It is important for nursing practitioners to work towards cultural competency through provision of culturally competent patient care. Nurses should therefore, be sensitive and open-minded to avoid being compromised by the cultural differences in perception of illness. While communication skills should be used in the best interest of the patient, limits must be set to ensure that the patient does not manipulate the treatment required. Nurses can de velop cultural competency by understanding individual and organizational views of different cultures. Acquisition of background knowledge about a patient on the cultural views can help in decision making. Having collective communication skills will then enable one to get the real meaning of words even if the patient is from a different culture. There should be strong ties between the nurse and the community. However, nurses must be aware of national and professional priorities for caring of cross culturally populations. Responses from 3 families from different cultures The three families interviewed were from middle-class status of life. The families interviewed were an African family, a Latino family, and a white American family. The interviews were contacted at the community hospital. It was to understand their take on cultural differences in medication and modern treatment. Health maintenance The African family did not have better ways to maintain their health compared to other f amilies. They only look for health services when they are sick. It was the responsibility of the family to take the sick person to the hospital when other alternatives have failed. Latinos families have an average medical attention towards maintaining their health. They rely very much on health centers for the services. The white American fa

Local Law Enforcement Essay Example for Free

Local Law Enforcement Essay Stages/Steps in the Hiring Process: First step is the applicant processing division to identify the most qualified applicants. Second step is the Pre-hire interview, next is a medical exam and then take a written psychological test. Next one will take a job standard test and an oral psychological interview. Last but not least a character investigation and any other additional requirements under exceptional circumstances. Specific Requirements: Applicants must be at least 17 ½ years of age by the last day of filing of the exam they are applying for. . Those applicants who are 35 and over and have active United States military service may deduct up to six years from the age requirement. If by mail: Applications must be submitted/postmarked by the filing deadline of the exam they are applying for. Candidates must be at least 21 years of age on or before the day of hire. Candidates must be a United States citizen on or before the day of hire. On or before the day of hire, candidates must have successfully completed either: Sixty (60) college credits with a 2.0 G.P.A. from an accredited college or university, or Two (2) years of full-time, active military service in the United States Armed Forces with an honorable discharge and have a high schools diploma or its equivalent. Candidates must reside either within one of the five boroughs of New York City or one of the surrounding counties of New York City; Suffolk, Westchester, Orange, Rockland, Nassau or Putnam Counties on the day of hire. Candidates must possess a valid, unrestricted New York State Driver’s License on the day of hire. Candidates must pay a $75.00 fee for fingerprinting as part of the investigation process. Candidates must pass a drug/alcohol screening. Candidates must pass a character and background investigation. Pay Scales: Police Academy 44,744; after 6 months 46,288; after 1.5 years 48,173; after 2.5 years 53, 819; after 3.5 years 58,786; after 4.5 years 62,455; after 5.0 years 69,005; after 5.5 years 90, 829. †¢Candidates must compete in the required written examination and pass additional screening procedures. †¢Candidates must be legal residents of Nassau County, Suffolk County, Westchester County or one of the five boroughs of New York City at time of appointment and maintain residency. †¢Candidates must be at least 17 but less than 35 years of age on the date of the written exam; provided, however, that time spent on military duty or on terminal leave, not exceeding a total of 6 years, shall be subtracted from the age of any applicant who has passed their 35th birthday, as provided in subdivision 10-a of Section 243 of the New York State Military Law. †¢Candidates must be citizens of the United States at time of appointment. †¢Candidates will be required to submit to a background investigation prior to appointment. †¢Candidates must possess a valid New York State driver’s license at time of appointment. †¢Appointments are determined on an individual basis by the Nassau County Civil Service Commission, however, anyone with a felony conviction may be excluded from being a Nassau County Police Officer. †¢No college education is required to take the written examination; however, 32 credits of college education are required for appointment. Those candidates who have not attained that level of education but are otherwise eligible for appointment will remain on the eligible list and will become eligible for appointment after they have obtained the necessary college credits. Pay Scales: Get paid while you train in the Police Academy;$34,000 starting salary;$107,319 after 9 years;12% shift differential; Education incentive pay Title of Agency (3): City of New York Department of Correction Web Address: http://www.nyc.gov/html/doc/html/home/home.shtml Stages/Steps in the Hiring Process: The primary responsibility of the Applicant Investigation Unit is to ensure the New York City Department of Correction hires the most qualified candidate to join the uniform members of service. The candidates are investigated, evaluated medically, inclusive of an agility test, and physically to determine their fitness for duty in all aforementioned areas. The New York City Department of Correction investigates thousands of candidates; however, only the most qualified for the position are selected.

Anorexia Nervosa :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Anorexia nervosa is a serious problem that many people are dealing with in today’s society. Though this is a serious problem, the severity of the illness can easily be lessened with quick intervention from parents, friends, and other caring individuals. People who are close to the victim can notice early warning signs and symptoms, which are characteristic of this condition. Anorexia nervosa may be a life threatening illness, but can be treated if detected early on. There are many effective treatments that are currently available for patients. These different treatments will help the patient regain a healthy, normal lifestyle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The only real answer to the question of what type of people anorexia nervosa affects is that there is no valid answer even though researchers have found that the amount of people who develop anorexia nervosa is rising drastically. Researchers have also found that many patients with anorexia nervosa typically lack self-esteem and often feel that weight loss will make them more liked or even popular.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many different symptoms that anorexics display. The symptoms can be both physical and psychological. The physical symptoms only occur after a severe amount of starvation has occurred. The symptoms often include constipation, loss of hair on the head, growth of faint body hair, low pulse rate, and the patient is unable to tolerate cold temperatures. Anorexics also experience many different endocrine problems. The psychological problems can range from social withdrawal to distortion of body image.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is no real answer as to exactly what causes anorexia nervosa. Researchers believe that environmental, psychological, and physiological factors all play a major role in the happening of this disorder. Many scientists believe that the part of the brain called the hypothalamus has a part in the development of anorexia nervosa. Other researchers think that abnormalities in particular endocrine functions may be key to discovering what may cause anorexia nervosa.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are three different ways that patients with anorexia nervosa can be treated. These treatments consist of nutritional therapy, family counseling, and psychotherapy for the patient. The foremost concern when beginning nutritional therapy is that the patient needs to gain weight. A physician can accomplish this by adding an amount of calories to a patient’s daily intake of food. Family counseling basically deals with the relationship between the patient and the members of the family. Psychotherapy is very necessary to the patient because it helps the individual realize the effects and the process anorexia nervosa undergoes.

Business Statistics Assignment

Interpret the measures of central tendency and variation within the context of this problem. Why should the company producing the tea bags be concerned about the central tendency and variation? Because getting an exact amount of tea in a bag is problematic because of variation in the density of the tea bag, and the extremely fast filling operation of the machine. D) Are the data skewed? If so, how? Left skewed. Because the mean is less than the median. What are the differences among the various measures of variation, such as the range, intrauterine range, variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each? (a) Range: Range of a data set is deference between the largest and the smallest data value. It is the simplest measure of variability. It is very sensitive to the smallest and the largest data value. (b) Intrauterine Range: intrauterine range of a data set is the difference between the third quartile and the first quar tile.It is range for the middle 50% of data. It overcomes the sensitivity to extreme data value. (c) Variance: The variance measures the variability the utilizes all the data. It also measures the average of the squared difference between each data value and the mean. (d) Standard Deviation: Is a standard of a data set is the positive square root of the variance. It is measured in the same units as the data making it more easily interpreted than the variance. (e) Coefficient of variance: the coefficient of variance indicates how range large the standard deviation is related to them.The advantages and disadvantages: (a) Range: Advantages: 1) Easy to understand; 2) Simple to calculate; 3) It is a good measure for comparison as it span the whole distributions. Disadvantages: 1) it uses only two of the observations and so can be distorted by extreme values; 2) Does not indicates any concentrations of the observations; Cannot be use in calculating of the observation. (b) Intrauterine ran ge: Advantages: 1) The calculations are simple and quite to do; 20 it can be illustrated graphically; 3) It covers the central 50% of the observations and so is not distorted by extreme values.Disadvantages: 1) Disregards all values except 1st and 3rd quartiles. Advantages: 1) Considers all data; 2) Not a terminal statistic Disadvantages: 1) Not appropriate for nominal or ordinal data; 2) Sensitive to extreme outliers. (d) Standard Deviation: (e) Coefficient of Variance: Advantages: The coefficient of variation is useful because the standard deviation of data must always be understood in the context of the mean of the data. In contrast, the actual value of the C.V. is independent of the unit in which the measurement has en taken, so it is a dimensionless number.For comparison between data sets with different units or widely different means, one should use the coefficient of variation instead of the standard deviation. Disadvantages: 1) When the mean value is close to zero, the coeff icient of variation will approach infinity and is therefore sensitive to small changes in the mean. This is often the case if the values do not originate from a ratio scale; 2) Unlike the standard deviation, it cannot be used directly to construct confidence intervals for the mean.

Education and Its Affects Around the World Essay

Education is something that affects all of us as a whole gender, race, and poverty plays a role in education. As a citizen of the United States of America it is important for us to appreciate a good education that some of us take for granite. Gender is crucial in how people view education in the text:† Philippine Women’s College corrects gender miseducation†. Professors and education enthusiast are breaking down the barriers and bias that is associated with gender. Text books in the Philippines show women playing the â€Å"stay at home† role and the father portraying the â€Å" bread winner† role this a form a of bias. Scholars at the Miriam College are working to correct this matter by teaching all female students about stereotypes relating to gender. Students often are shown at a young age to approach matters in a biased free manner, through this approach both male and female can share duties in the household that were once delegated to one based on gender. Trained teachers are able to spot the gender difference and compensate with materials that are fair for all. Miriam College and its faculty also discuss sexual harassment and a list of other things as well. What was happening in the†Women’s Movement â€Å"and what was being taught in the classroom were two totally different things. In 1986 Corazon Aquino became the first female president of the Philippines this was in stark contrast of what was being taught. As far as equality for women the Philippines are ranked ninth in the world, with that being said advocates of gender feel that it is best suited to teach and educate when the students are young. Patricia Licuanan president of Miriam College implemented in 2001 gender courses to the curriculum that focuses on equality and quality education for women. Also in 2001 several colleges in the Philippines have shown interest in providing studies for women as well. Due to the work that has been taken place in the Philippines young women are questioning and taking up professions that were once generally associated with men. In the text â€Å"Lost Generation Fears as boys reject education† Professor Reynolds of Plymouth University states that: â€Å"the gender gap is a worldwide phenomenon, not just in the UK or a Welsh one†. Research has shown that boys are neglecting school, while girls are less likely to drop out of school after 16. A survey showed more girls than boys seek a higher education. Studies also show that vocational programs also play a role in why boys choose not to seek college versus girls. Boys are also not performing on the same level as girls this factor leads to fewer boys in college. Poverty is a component to lack of education as well in the article:† Escaping Poverty is possible when there are local opportunities for people with initiative†. This article shows the stereotypes that are associated with poverty 60,000 people that spread over 15 countries worldwide were surveyed; there are a lot of hurdles we must overcome for this to work. People are likely to fall into poverty the study will take preventive measures to ensure people will not make these mistakes. The stereotypes that haunt poverty stricken places is that people are lazy, shiftless, and have no ambition this is not the case. In fact these people surveyed accept responsibility for there actions, and want to better themselves. All of us need local opportunities and social networks to ensure that this will not happen on a global front, even if someone works hard to get there selves out of poverty with out help from the community and economic woes this process will be pains taking to say the least. Education is factor when combating poverty, we as Americans need to take advantage of our educational system though it may not be the best we are still a free country and should utilize any and every opportunity we have. Race also plays a vital role in education the text:† Officials try to improve black males’ academic performance: The achievement† Ginger Littleton has been a teacher in Northern California for more that twenty years. She has been stumped by the numbers of black males that scored drastically lower than other races in test of achievement. A look at last years test results from grades 1-10 math scores and FCAT were sorted by race. The results showed that 89 percent of white third graders were a the appropriate level, while Hispanics represented 66 percent, and blacks 69 percent but only one out of that percentile was a male. 59 percent of Anglos, compared to 33 percent of Hispanics were at the appropriate level. African Americans represent only 30 percent. This trend increased more by there sophomore year, Caucasians represent 38 percent, Hispanics 32 percent, and 13 percent of African Americans sustained this level of reading. By this point many African Americans have stopped going to school by then. The FCAT test of reading shows that only 1 percent of males were reading at the 10th grade level, white males scored 7 percent on the same level. African American males results were 0 percent, white males were 8 to 7 percent at levels 4 and 5 of reading. A study was conducted in 2004-2005† Focus on Blacks† by The National Education Association labeled the poor standings as â€Å"the achievement gap† and a national crisis. The study showed that African American 17 year old students performed in comparison to 13 year old whites in science. In the math part of the study blacks scored 61 percent below the standards, versus 20 percent of whites in the 4th grade. The results show that African Americans face challenges before they start school. Some of the findings show that it is less father figures and mentors in the African American community, lack of after school programs, and cohesiveness in the family all plays roles in the significant decline in education in the black community. There is a saying† it takes a village to raise a child† the African American community needs to rebuild it village from the foundation up to eliminate this disparity that runs rampant among so many. As you can have just read there are several factors in ones education it may be a gender problem, a socioeconomic problem, or ones ethnicity may all play a role in the type of education we receive as well as our chances of making it in today’s society. We still live in one of the greatest countries in the world in the end it is up to us to utilize what avenues are available and make the most out of it.

Critical Study of the Organization behaviour at Southwest Airlines The WritePass Journal

Critical Study of the Organization behaviour at Southwest Airlines Introduction: Critical Study of the Organization behaviour at Southwest Airlines Introduction:Bibliography: Related Introduction: According to Peter Senge (1990: 3)  learning organizations are organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together. (Peter Senge 1990: 3).Due to the rapid change in the business environment, the learning organisations came into access as it has flexibility, adaptively and productivity which excels an organisation. The people in the organisation have the capacity to learn but the structures in which they operate are often not conducive to engagement and reflection. Moreover, due to lack of tools and guiding ideas in the organisation it leads to unclear image of the situation in which the people works. There is a fundamental requirement in the organisations to shift mind amongst their members for continual expanding of their capacity to create their future. When you ask people about what it is like being part of a great team, what is most striking is the meaningfulness of the experience. People talk about being part of something larger than them, of being connected, of being generative. It becomes quite clear that, for many, their experiences as part of truly great teams stand out as singular periods of life lived to the fullest. Some spend the rest of their lives looking for ways to recapture that spirit. (Senge 1990: 13) .The various aspects that differentiate learning organisations from those traditional organisations lies in Peter Senge’s Five Discipline . They are: 1) Systems thinking 2) Personal mastery 3) Mental models 4) Building shared vision 5) Team learning Peter Senge (1990:14) says that people are agents to the structure in which they operate and they are a part of the structure. The disciplines are in this way that it  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœconcerned with a shift of mind from seeing parts to seeing wholes, from seeing people as helpless reactors to seeing them as active participants in shaping their reality, from reacting to the present to creating the future’ (Senge 1990: 69). It is to the disciplines that we will now turn. (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) 1)   System Thinking- the cornerstone of the learning organization: System thinking is the Fifth Discipline amongst the Five Disciplines of Peter Senge. Systemic thinking is the conceptual cornerstone (‘The Fifth Discipline’) of his approach. It is the discipline that integrates the others, fusing them into a coherent body of theory and practice (ibid: 12).  The basic tools of the system theory can build into sophisticated models as they are fairly straightforward. Peter Senge states that one of the major obstacles is that what is written and what is done in the name of the management. It means that a simplified framework is used in a complex business environment. Focusing on the business as a part rather than a whole body leads to the failure of the organization as a dynamic process.( infed.org/index.htm) The five disciplines can be approached at one of three levels: Practices: what you do. Principles: guiding ideas and insights. Essences: the state of being those with high levels of mastery in the discipline (Senge 1990: 373). Each discipline provides a vital dimension. Each is necessary to the others if organizations are to ‘learn’.( infed.org/index.htm) 2)   Personal Mastery-   Personal mastery is the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of focusing our energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality objectively’ (ibid.: 7). It goes beyond  competence  and skills, although it involves them. It goes beyond spiritual opening, although it involves spiritual growth (ibid.: 141). Mastery is seen as a special kind of proficiency. It is not about dominance, but rather about  calling. Vision is vocation rather than simply just a good idea. People with high level of personal mastery lives in high level of continual learning. Personal mastery is not something which an individual possess but it a process. People possessing personal mastery have high level of self confidence.( infed.org/index.htm) 3)   Mental Models- Starts with turning the mirror inward; learning to unearth our internal pictures of the world, to bring them to the surface and hold them rigorously to scrutiny. It also includes the ability to carry on ‘meaningful’ conversations that balance inquiry and advocacy, where people expose their own thinking effectively and make that thinking open to the influence of others. (Senge 1990: 9). It is necessary for people to learn new skills and develop new orientations in an organization in order to develop the capacity to work with mental models. In other words it means fostering openness (Senge 1990: 273-286).( infed.org/index.htm) 4)   Building Shared Vision   It is one of the ideas about leadership that has inspired organizations for thousands of years. Such visions enables experimentation and innovation. Clear vision makes the people learn on their interest rather than telling them what to do. Translation of this visions into shared vision will lead to the success in achieving the long-term and short-goals of an organization.( infed.org/index.htm) 5)   Team Learning-Personal mastery and shared vision are not enough as it needs the people to work together in team. It will not only lead to good results for an organization but also help in rapid learning amongst the people.   It also involves learning how to recognize the patterns of interaction in teams that undermine learning. (Senge 1990: 10). Joining of dialogues with system thinking possibly creates a language which suits more for dealing with complexity, focuses on deep-seated of structural issues and forces rather than being diverted by questions of personality and leadership style. ( infed.org/index.htm). There is a myth in the mind of the employers that the educational qualification is enough to make an employee efficient, effective and competence. Education provides the basic cognitive skills to prepare an employee for work. In order to survive in this competitive business world, every organization needs to have their employees to be of highly polished skills and competence powers. This is where HRM steps in. Skills, knowledge and competency can only be developed through HRM. It makes the people to be more competitive as they were used to be. Training is costly as it requires arrangement of resources, staffs and many other perspectives which requires investment. For instance, a training and development programme takes place in XYZ Company. As it requires investment, there can be resistance from the different departments. This happens because the departments other than HRM are of the thought that if the training is given to achieve certain goals of the organization and the employees fail to achieve those goals, it would result in the loss of the business as the output is not equal or more than the output. On the other hand, if the employees achieve these goals it leads to the long-term benefits for the business. Improvement in the employee competency leads to increase in the corporate competitiveness which results in increasing profitability. In the view to increase the skills, efficiency, effectiveness and competence of the people in the organisation, it is necessary that the learning and development must be initiated by the HRM department. These sessions must be carefully planned and made sure that the resources are used at their best. The focus should not only be on the competence but also on the values and attitude. Learning is an initiative of change management which aims at developing employees potentials in order to add more value to the organization and the community they belonging to. (hrmbusiness.com/2008/08/hrm-basics-hrms-role-on-training-and.html). On a global perspective for enhancing the culture of learning and development of an organisation, the HRM goes through certain critical challenging issues which play a vital role for the growth of an organisation. One of the challenges that an organisation has to deal with is the employee turnover ratio, which means to retain the resources which for certain reasons wants to leave an organisation. The HRM department finds this part being critical for small medium organisations where they have low budgets to train their current resources or hiring new resources. If an employee leaves an organisation at a certain period of time which can put that project into crucial circumstances for its survival, it’s very important either to document down everything so other resources can pick the right path of that project or to retain them so that the project survives in its best. Hiring new resources and training them again on that project includes cost and time which doesn’t goes in favor of organisation where critical deadlines have to be met. This can also leave a negative impact of job insecurity on employees that the running organisation might be going through financial problems or they don’t find any growth in their career. So another challenge for HRM is to secure their jobs by providing them chances to grow in their career. Once an employee polishes its skill more gives him more confidence to produce better output for that organisation. It’s a contribution towards promoting a learning culture in the organisation too. So HRM ensures that all the necessary ingredients should be provided for an employee to learn more by their own interest. Some organisations have a strategy of providing them a library or an environment where the interest automatically develops. It could be in sense of competition or rewards or benefits whatever motivates them to produce their better output by learning more. So training and development under low budgets can al so be a challenging task for HRM as noticed that in small medium organisations usually a resource main ambition is to learn more as much as they can. And those trainings can be conducted internally as well externally. But how much budget that organisation can afford for it? Are they willing to invest on their employees in form of trainings? Is that a guarantee by training them, they won’t quit? These perspectives are being thought from an organisations end too. But Southwest airline has proved that putting trust in your employee and give them a free hand to think and logically come up with solutions to problems helped them a lot in building their culture where learning was mainly focused. Other issues like appraisal processes or motivational processes again have a vital role in the growth of an organisation which is directly linked to a psychological satisfaction. Maintaining and sustaining an equitable evaluation of performance system is a key to employee’s satisfacti on for their job and its performance. The more they are satisfied towards their jobs, the more they will input their efforts. (http://humanresources.about.com/od/retention/Retention_of_Employees_Tips_and_Tools_for_Employee_Retention.htm,scribd.com/doc/10041934/HRM-Training-Development) Considering the brief introduction of Southwest Airlines, the HRM Models that has been implemented are strategic as well as descriptive. As we all are well known about the incident of 9/11, it shook the root of airline industry. This gave a space in the industry to bring about the necessary change required in order to survive in that period. As other airline companies were struggling to survive in the market, Southwest Airlines was the only airline to hold its boot in the industry. From the strategic point of view, it can be seen that the leadership style was tremendous. The mission of Southwest Airlines, low cost, low fare, no frills, and its dedication to the highest quality of customer service delivered with a sense of warmth, friendliness, individual pride and company spirit. The airline industry tried to cut down their expenses and marched towards the direction of continuous improvement and innovation. This brought the learning organisation into existence and soon it become very popular amongst the different industries including the airline industry. Learning organisation refers to continuous improvement and maximum utilisation of resources and this was one of the reasons that brought this concept into action. The employees in the organisation were treated in the same manner as the Southwest Airlines used to treat their customers. Creativity and innovation were given more importance than the other factors in the organization. There were lot of talks going around amongst the organisations regarding the team spirit but Southwest Airlines are the one that succeeded in achieving it. This is due to the thought amongst the strategic level that the employees come first than the customers as they are of great importance to the organisation. This shows the form of leadership style used at the strategic level which built trust, love and affection amongst its employees. As the change was took place in the organisation, the Southwest Airlines hold on with their employ ees rather than cutting jobs and saving cost. Infect the employees were trained in order to deliver the best customer service. The top level shared all the mission and vision of the organisation. Continuous improvement can be bought only if the information is clearly shared with the employees who help them to take punitive steps to achieve the goals of the organisation. A feeling of being a part of a big family made the employees to work for the most benefit of the organisation. The goal of profit maximization was achieved by keeping low cost and high quality of customer service. Competitors have learned from Southwest and its unique management strategies and they are using these tactics as well as unique ones to win over customer. It can also be said that the HRM model used by Southwest Airlines was SOFT HRM as it didn’t treat its employees like a resource but as human as well whereas HARD HRM treats human just like a resource. As we can clearly see the situation of Southwest Airlines, on the other hand the current situation of the British Airways stands nowhere as compared to Southwest Airlines. In spite of the airline industry being badly hit in that time, the Southwest Airlines anyhow managed to be the best airlines and to make maximum profit. On the other hand, British Airways struggles daily with staff problems, strikes, customer complaints, inadequate in achieving company’s goal. During the ash cloud period, British Airways used to bear a loss of  £20 million pounds on daily basis. Moreover, the ticket charges of British Airways are quite high as compared to Southwest Airlines. Employee’s conflict is one of the major reasons that due to which team spirit is neglected. The flow of organisation’s information and data is restricted as the strategic level feels that the company’s data should be confidential. This leads to a feeling of not being loyal and dishonest amongst the employees. Southwest did not employ the â€Å"hub-and-spoke† approach used by other major airlines, such as United, American, and Delta. Instead, its approach was short haul (average flight time was 55 minutes) and point-to-point (e.g., Dallas to Houston, Los Angeles to Phoenix). Southwest had no assigned seats, paid its crews by trip, and used less congested airports (e.g., Baltimore instead of Washington’s Dulles or Reagan; Manchester, N.H., instead of Boston, Mass.). (http://mba.tuck.dartmouth.edu/pdf/2002-2-0012.pdf) Bibliography: Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 17 5, 2011, from (http:// www.infed.org/index.htm) Retrieved 18 5, 2011, from (hrmbusiness.com/2008/08/hrm-basics-hrms-role-on-training-and.html) Retrieved 18 5, 2011, from (http://humanresources.about.com/od/retention/Retention_of_Employees_Tips_and_Tools_for_Employee_Retention.htm ,scribd.com/doc/10041934/HRM-Training-Development) Retrieved 18 5, 2011, from (http://mba.tuck.dartmouth.edu/pdf/2002-2-0012.pdf)

To examine the determinants of FDI in China and India and the causes for their difference. The WritePass Journal

To examine the determinants of FDI in China and India and the causes for their difference. Abstract: To examine the determinants of FDI in China and India and the causes for their difference. Abstract:1. Introduction:2. Literature review:2.1. China:2.1.1. National determinants:2.1.2. Regional determinants:2.2. India:3. Theoretical model of FDI determinants:Market size and growth prospects:Natural and human resource endowments:Physical, financial and technological infrastructure:Trade openness and access to international markets:The regulatory, policy framework and policy coherence:4. Data and methodology:4.1. Data:  4.2. Methodology:4.2.1.Determinants of FDI in China and India:4.2.2. The difference in inward FDI between China and India:5. Empirical results:5.1. Individual country models:5.1.1. China:5.1.2. India:5.1.3. China and India:6. Policy implications:Conclusion:Related Abstract: This study aims to examine the determinants of FDI in China and India and the causes for their difference. Ordinary least squares models were first applied to analyse separately FDI determinants in China and India and then a panel data model was developed to explore the causes of the differences. It was found that China’s FDI was determined by inflation while India’s FDI was influenced by infrastructure and trade openness. Infrastructure was the main reason why India was lagging behind China. The results suggest that India needs to upgrade its infrastructure and create effective trade policies in order to attract FDI. Key words: FDI, China, India, inflation, trade openness, infrastructure. 1. Introduction: Multinational Enterprises (MNEs), comprising 82,000 parent companies, 810,000 foreign subsidiaries and an excess of inter-firm arrangements worldwide, have played an important and growing role in today’s global economy (UNCTAD, 2009). The world’s top MNEs are the prominent driver of international production. In 2008, they accounted for around 4% of world GDP[1] and had combined assets of $ 10.7 trillion, combined foreign sales of $ 5.2 trillion and employed 8.9 million people (Table 1-1). Table 1-1:Snapshot of the World’s top 100 TNCs, 2006-07/08 Variable 2006 2007 2006-2007 % change 2008 2007-2008 % change    Assets ($billion)    Foreign Total 5,245 9,239 6,116 10,702 16.6 15.8 6,094 10,687 -0.4 -0.1 Sales ($billion)    Foreign Total 4,078 7,088 4,936 8,078 21.0 14.0 5,208 8,518 5.5 5.5 Employment (thousands)    Foreign Total 8,582 15,388 8,440 14,870 -1.66 -3.4 8,898 15,302 5.4 2.9 Source: UNCTAD (2009), p.19, Table I.17 (based on UNCTAD/Erasmus University database). The key measure of MNEs’ activities is foreign direct investment (FDI), defined as â€Å"an equity investment outside of the parent corporation’s home country, it implies some control over economic activity, usually a greater than 10% stake† (Baker et al., 1998). In line with the increasing importance of MNEs, global FDI inflows have grown significantly in the last 20 years (UNCTAD, 2010): average annual inflow between 1990-2000 was 492.86 $ billion, which reached a peak of $ 2,099.97 billion in 2007 before declining to $1,114.2 billion in 2009, reflecting the effects of the global crisis. However, FDI inflows are expected to increase further to $1.3 $1.5 trillion in 2011 (Figure 1-1). Figure 1-1: Global FDI inflows and projections, 1990-2011 Source: UNCTAD (2010). FDI inflows have been shifted noticeably to developing and transition economies owing to their economic growth and reforms as well as their progressive liberalisation of foreign investment regimes (UNCTAD, 2010). As a result, developing and transition economies attracted nearly half of global FDI inflows in 2009 (Figure 1-2). Among the largest FDI recipients from these economies, China and India have emerged as the second and third world most popular FDI destinations (UNCTAD, 2010). Figure 1-2: Shares of developing and transition economies in global FDI inflows and outflows, 2000-2009 (%). Source: UNCTADstat, calculated based on data of inward and outward FDI. China opened up its economy to foreign investment in 1979 and since then inward FDI in China has risen appreciably. By 2009, the absolute value of FDI inflows was $95 billion compared to only $0.057 billion in 1980 (UNCTAD, 2010). Over 10 years after China, India too liberalised its economic policies, replacing the existing for more relaxed and open policies towards foreign investment. The reforms have resulted in considerable increased inflows of FDI during the past decade: inflow in 2009 rose to $34.61 billion from only $2-3 billion during the 1990s (UNCTAD, 2010). Even so, the amount of FDI in India is still lagging behind most other emerging economies, especially China. On the global competitiveness scale, China ranked higher than India in all criteria of economic competitiveness (Table 1-2). Table 1-2: The global competitiveness index, 2010-2011    Pillars    Basic requirements Institutions Infrastructure Macroeconomic environment Health primary education Country Rank Rank Rank Rank Rank China 30 49 50 4 37 India 81 58 86 73 104    Efficiency enhancers Higher education training Goods market efficiency Labour market efficiency Financial market development Country Rank Rank Rank Rank Rank China 29 60 43 38 57 India 38 85 71 92 17    Innovation sophistication Technological readiness Market size Business sophistication Innovation Country Rank Rank Rank Rank Rank China 31 78 2 41 26 India 42 86 4 44 39 Source: World Economic Forum (2010). The differences in FDI inflows between these two countries suggest an intriguing area for further research. If China, with its â€Å"new-found† belief in capitalism[2] can attract significant amounts of FDI, why India which is endowed with Western-type institutions and capitalist organizations cannot? What causes the gap in volumes of FDI between the two? This paper is going to address these questions by evaluating factors determining FDI based on current literature on FDI in general and FDI in China and India in particular. The study is structured as follows: part 2 reviews the literature on FDI determinants in China and India. Part 3 presents the eclectic theory and empirical studies. Part 4 describes data and methods for analysis. Part 5 analyses FDI determinants in the two countries. Part 6 suggests policy implications and part 7 concludes. 2. Literature review: The emergence of China and India as the two most favoured hosts of FDI among developing economies has generated various numbers of empirical studies on the major determinants of FDI in each country as well as the two countries combined. 2.1. China: Studies on factors shaping FDI in China can be broadly categorized into two groups: studies at the national level and those at regional level. 2.1.1. National determinants: The empirical results from Chen (1996), Henley et al. (1999), Zhang (2001), Dees (1998), Hong and Chen (2001) and Liu et al. (2001) all concluded that market size and preferential policies, along with others, were primary factors for China’s FDI. Wei (2005) explored the determinants of FDI from OECD to China for the period from 1987 to 2000. The analysis found significant relationship between FDI and market size, real exchange rate and trade openness. Among these determinants, market size, measured by GDP[3] per capita, appeared as the major driving force for outward FDI from OECD countries to China. This seems to be convincing as China has a huge domestic market with a mass-production system, which considerably reduces production costs. This factor coupled with â€Å"FDI friendly† policies creates business opportunities for foreign investment and hence increase the attractiveness of China to multinationals. The analysis provides reasonable explanations for FDI inflows in China, however, it should be taken into account that the source of FDI from OECD countries only account for a small proportion of China’s inward FDI. Therefore, the results should be assimilated with caution. Mathew et al. (2009) provided evidence that corruption, as an indicator of political risk, determined the location decision of MNEs. In particular, the finding suggested that provinces with effective local governments and better efforts to tackle corruption tended to attract more FDI. The study indicated that if provinces could improve their â€Å"anti-corruption efforts† to the average level, they would be able to receive more FDI. For example, FDI would be boosted to more than $ 40 million in the following year as a result of a 10 % increase in the anti-corruption efforts. 2.1.2. Regional determinants: Some studies have investigated the determinants of FDI in China at a regional level. For instance, Xing et al. (2008), focusing on the Eastern Chinese area, found that FDI was positively related to market size and labour quality, whereas, education and infrastructure were statistically insignificant in explaining FDI. Wei et al. (2010) analyzed the location factors and â€Å"network relations† of MNEs in Nanjing, China. This study confirmed the importance of infrastructure and government policy in the location decision of MNEs. Government intervention through investment policies was one of the key factors determining FDI since it indicated the significant role of government in expanding FDI. 2.2. India: The growth of FDI in India over the last decade since its economic reforms has raised the interest for further investigation. However, there are only a nominal number of empirical studies trying to indentify major determinants of FDI in India. One of those studies is that by Pradhan (2010), examining the role of trade liberalisation on FDI inflows in India between 1980 and 2007. The results found that trade openness had a positive correlation with FDI and that this relationship was stronger after the economic reforms since 1991. This implies the necessity of maintaining an â€Å"open door† policy to attract more FDI into the Indian economy. Other factors were also found significant in the study including real exchange rate and terms of trade. In a current study of FDI determinants in India, Resende (2010) found the evidence supporting the positive impacts of technology growth, trade openness and market size on FDI. In particular, market size and market attractiveness appeared to be the most significant factors determining the inflows of FDI into India. Poor infrastructure, on the other hand, deterred MNEs from investing in the country. Green (2005) explored FDI in a specific Indian industry sector: telecommunications from 1993 to 2003. The results showed that FDI would gain more traction if the government could reduce the limits on investment, maintain transparent regulations and improve physical infrastructure in the telecommunication sector. This conclusion seems to be appropriate as the evidence of FDI performance in this sector during the chosen period suggested that foreign firms entering the telecommunication industry did not stay in the business for a long time. The reasons behind this were that FDI had long suffered from inadequate infrastructure, opaque regulatory and legal environment. Among infrequent macro-level studies on FDI in India, Mukim and Nunnenkamp (2010) investigated determining factors of MNEs’ location decision in 447 districts of India. The analysis indicated that infrastructure and skilled workforce influenced the location choice of MNEs. However, the study suffered from data limitations with regards to FDI determinants at district-level. This may reduce the reliability of its results and hence cannot be applied generally. There seems to be a few studies considering FDI in India such as those by Green (2005), Pradhan (2010) and Resende (2010) investigating FDI determinants in India. However, their studies only focus on a particular industrial sector or factors instead of looking at different industries or various factors. Mukim and Nunnenkamp (2010) attempted to examine the determinants of FDI at a macro-scale level. Nevertheless, their research suffers from data limitations and hence cannot always apply. In comparison, FDI in China is well-documented: there is a range of studies from regional level such as those by Xi et al. (2008) and Wei et al. (2010) to national level including those by Chen (1996), Zhang (2001) and Wei (2005). Furthermore, there are not many studies concerning FDI in China and India to eventually compare and justify the differences in total FDI between two countries. For example, except a study by Sinha (2007) that gives adequate attention to India, other studies such as Wei (2000) and Wei (2005) centre predominantly on China. There is not enough focus on India in terms of FDI determinants. This study will attempt to fill the gap indentified in current knowledge. In particular, two homogeneous models of FDI determinants in China and India will be developed to identify important factors in each country and then a final model for both countries will be included to ultimately compare and explain the gap between China and India’s FDI inflows. 3. Theoretical model of FDI determinants: The theoretical framework for this study is based on the location advantages of â€Å"ownership, location, internalization† (OLI) paradigm proposed by Dunning (1973). The OLI model demonstrates reasons for firms that successfully operate abroad and their mode of entry (Table 3-1). In the theory, FDI is explained by identifying three main elements which guide the investment decision process of MNEs. They include: ownership (O), location (L) and internalization (I). Ownership advantages refer to the firms’ production process which allows it to have a competitive advantage in overseas markets. Location advantages are benefits that a host country can offer a foreign firm. Internalization refers to transaction costs and the ability of multinationals to exploit ownership and location advantages through FDI. While ownership and internalization advantages vary among investing firms, location advantages are specific to the host country. This latter advantage provides a strong grounding for further research on the determinants of FDI. Table 3-1: Relationship between OLI-advantages and mode of entry    Advantages Mode of entry    Ownership Location Internalization FDI Yes Yes Yes Exports Yes Yes No Licensing Yes No No Source: Perlitz (1997) There is a vast number of studies on the location advantages of FDI such as those by Culem (1988), Estrin et al. (1997), Butler and Joaquin (1998), Wei (2000), Razafimahefa and Hamori (2005), Ang (2007), Sinha (2007) and Pradhan (2008). The organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD, 2002) summarizes the main FDI determinants as follows: Market size and growth prospects: Countries with large market sizes (measured by GDP per capita) and sustainable economic growth (measured by the growth rates of GDP) offer better opportunities for MNEs to access the market, develop economies of scale and explore profitability. As an example, Ang (2007) confirmed that a large domestic market resulted in more FDI inflows, owing to the benefits of economies of scale. Natural and human resource endowments: These are factors of importance in MNEs’ location decision process. Export-oriented FDI in particular seeks to take advantage of those factors related to low labour costs and abundant natural resources. Moreover, the quality of human capital in a country is crucial for technology transfer, managerial techniques and spill-over effects of FDI. Sinha (2007) suggested that the recent â€Å"business process outsourcing† boom in India occurred thanks to the qualified workforce well-skilled in English and technologically educated in â€Å"IT enabled services†. Physical, financial and technological infrastructure:   Infrastructure comprising transport, electricity, communication networks, education, health facilities and other forms are significant determinants of FDI. MNEs are more likely to be attracted to areas with good infrastructure. For example, Sinha (2007) found the significant impacts of port based infrastructure and its proximity on FDI as it lessens inland transportation and reduce costs. Lack of investment in infrastructure, on the other hand, deters FDI. Trade openness and access to international markets: Trade reforms, the degree of openness to trade (measured by the proportion of exports and imports to GDP) and access to regional and global markets are important factors in determining FDI. In particular, openness makes the transfer of goods and capital in and out of the host country easier in the absence of restrictions and thus stimulates production and reduces costs. In realisation of the importance of trade openness, the World Bank has been requiring developing economies to open up their markets so that free trade can help boost growth in these countries (IMF, 2006). The regulatory, policy framework and policy coherence: Macroeconomic stability (indicated by exchange rate stability and low inflation) and political stability (signified by transparent regulatory, legal framework and business environment) are essential for attracting FDI. For instance, Wei (2000) concluded that if China and India could reduce red tape and corruption to a level comparable to Singapore, FDI inflows would be 218% and 348% higher respectively for these countries. 4. Data and methodology: 4.1. Data: Based on the theoretical model and empirical studies discussed previously, five location indicators were chosen to reflect the factors that are most likely to affect FDI. The explanatory variables comprise of infrastructure, trade openness, political risk, inflation and exchange rate. An overview of these variables and their predicted signs is presented in table 4-1: Table 4-1: Determinants of FDI according to theory and empirical studies Variables Predicted sign Empirical studies Physical, financial and technological infrastructure: Infrastructure (+) (+):   Green (2005), Mukim and Nunnenkamp (2010), Wei et al. (2010), Sinha (2007).(-):   Ã‚  Pradhan (2008).No effect: Xi et al. (2008) Trade openness and access to international markets: Trade openness (+) (+): Culem (1988), Wei (2005), Pradhan (2010), Resende (2010). The regulatory, policy framework and policy coherence: Political risk (-) (-):   Green (2005), Mathew et al. (2008), Butler and Joaquin (1998). Inflation (-) (-):   Estrin et al. (1997), Razafimahefa and Hamori (2005). Exchange rate (-) (-):   Wei (2005), Pradhan (2010).(+): Resende (2010). A regression analysis was carried out in order to investigate the links and trends of the presented indicators, specific to FDI in China and India. The regression analysis consists of data from 1984 to 2008 for both countries. FDI net inflows per capita in current US dollars are used; this allows us to take into account the relative country size. The data on FDI was drawn from the World Bank database (IMF, 2010). The period choice of this analysis was partly determined by the availability of variables’ data and is thus somewhat restricted. For example, investigation prior to1979 for China could not be applied due to the unavailability of several independent variables. This limits the number of observations and makes it difficult to justify the effects of economic reforms on net FDI inflows in China. Therefore, this data limitation potentially leads to the study missing a key turning point in China’s policy and regulatory regime following its economic reforms in 1979. ‘Human resources’ was identified as an important determinant of FDI in the theoretical framework. However, the data for possible indicators of human capital, such as secondary school enrolment and literacy rates, was insufficient. For example, some figures for the years studied were unavailable. As a result, human resources was not included in the regression. Busse and Hefeker (2007) used 12 indicators of political risk which could have been applied to this analysis. However, due to budgetary constraints these were not available. Furthermore, dummy and slope dummies (INDIA=1if India, otherwise China) were used to assess if FDI inflows and the chosen factors’ effects on FDI were significantly different between two countries. FDI was specified as a function of the following form: fdi = f ( infra, trade, pol, infla, exc) Where the variables are listed and defined as below: Table 4-2: Determinants of FDI in China and India Variable name Proxy for variable Measures fdi FDI inflows Net inflows of FDI as a percentage of real GDP infra Infrastructure Telephone lines per 100 people trade Trade openness Sum of exports and imports as a percentage of GDP pol Political risk Scale 0-1 (0=unstable, 1= stable) infla Inflation Annual growth rate of the GDP implicit deflator. Exc Exchange rate Official exchange rate (local currency units per US $) Data sources and Summary statistics, time series plots: see appendix table A-1, A-2 and figure A-1, A-2.   4.2. Methodology: 4.2.1.Determinants of FDI in China and India: Having considered all the variables that are used in the analysis, this paper applies time series regression models and the least squares method to examine FDI determinants in China and India. As in other studies (Wei, 2005; Busse and Hefeker, 2006) the log-linear model was adopted to adjust for heteroscedasticity. Furthermore, by taking the log-linear form, any expected non-linear relationship between FDI and the explanatory variables could be transformed into a linear one. Therefore, the estimated equation is: A unit root test was conducted to test whether the independent variables were stationary. The results of the tests are presented in appendix table A-3. It appears that in the case of India, most of the variables were non-stationary with an exception of lnexct. The data for China also resulted in most of the explanatory variables being non-stationary apart from lninfrat. Since the use of non-stationary variables can lead to spurious regression problem, making the analysis wholly unreliable, those variables were made stationary by using finite differences. Hence the new estimated model is: Although taking the differences could remove the unit root, it would reduce the number of observations by one for each variable. This, in turn, may weaken the explanatory power of the models. 4.2.2. The difference in inward FDI between China and India: In order to assess whether there is any difference in FDI inflows between China and India, a joint model of both countries during the period from 1984 to 2008 was conducted in the analysis. This would also assess whether the chosen explanatory factors affected FDI differently between China and India in the same period. Dummy and slope dummies were added to complete the model and panel data method was used. The estimated model is as follows: 5. Empirical results: 5.1. Individual country models: Table 5-1 shows the results obtained for China’s and India’s models. For both China’s and India’s models, the hypotheses of non-autocorrelation and normality were not rejected at 5 % critical value. Therefore, the parameter estimates could be concluded as being unbiased and consistent. Although, RESET tests suggested that the functional forms were mis-specified, the models were the best results to be found. The original form (1) increased the model fit and did not fail the RESET tests, however, this would lead to spurious regression problem as discussed above. In addition, possible interactions between variables were examined. A statistical interaction occurs when the effect of one explanatory variable depends on another explanatory variable, which makes the simultaneous impacts of these variables on the dependent variable non-additive. This may cause the estimated model to be incorrectly specified. As a result, variable interactions were explored through a two-way effect experiment, however, no sensible interactions between variables were found. Parameter stability was tested using the N-step Chow tests and the hypothesis of parameter stability was not rejected at 1% critical value for both China’s and India’s models (test results are displayed in appendix figure A-3). Table 5-1: FDI determinant modelDependent variable: fdi China: Model 1 Colinearity diagnostics (VIF) 2 Colinearity diagnostics (VIF) Constant -0.236 -0.186 Δlninfra 1.776 1.118 1.747 1.117 Δlntrad 1.084 1.298 Δlnpol 0.574 1.174 0.713 1.159 Δinfla 0.083 1.450 0.094* 1.207 Δlnex -0.911 1.209 -0.918 1.209 N 24 Mean VIF: 1.25 Mean VIF: 1.17 R-squared 0.238 0.229 F 1.125 1.408 RESET 9.2866** 11.174** Autocorrelation 0.96802 1.0143 Normality (Chi^2) 5.4895 5.5462 India: Model 1 Colinearity diagnostics (VIF) 2 Colinearity diagnostics (VIF) Constant 0.185 Δlninfra -1.708* 1.345 Δlntrad 1.584* 1.104 Δlnpol 0.020 1.136 Δinfla 0.007 1.211 Δlnex 0.433 1.235 N 24 Mean VIF: 1.251    R-squared 0.412 F 2.521* RESET 36.691** Autocorrelation 0.17512 Normality (Chi^2) 0.15490 Note: *** significant at 1% level; ** significant at 5% level, * significant at 10% level.For more details of the test results, see appendix table-A-4, A-5, Figure A-3. The possibility of multi-collinearity was also taken into account since the introduction of closely related variables in the model may cause serious multi-collinearity problem. This could result in an unexpected increase in the standard error of the coefficients and therefore renders the t-statistics unreliable. Multi-collinearity diagnosis was hence conducted and the results were shown in appendix table A-4. Variation inflation factors (VIF) were reported for each specification. In all models, multi-collinearity did not seem to be serious as mean VIFs were not substantially greater than 1. Having evaluated the models, it was generally concluded that the models were satisfactory. The estimated results for individual country are analysed below: 5.1.1. China: Interestingly most of the factors did not have the expected signs except trade openness and exchange rate. However, apart from inflation, the other variables did not prove to be statistically significant. Inflation, in particular, had a significantlypositive impact on FDI inflows in China. The result is somehow surprising given that many empirical analyses such as those shown in table 4-1 have concluded that MNE’s investment decision is adversely affected by price volatility as it raises the costs of doing business. However, according to Foad (2007), inflation may affect FDI through two ways. The first is that a rise in host country’s price level would make local produce more expensive in local export-markets. As a result, export behaviour would be reduced and hence discourages direct foreign investment. The second suggests that inflation in the host country gives MNEs a competitive advantage over domestic firms. In particular, since foreign firms can have access to resources from home parent companies; they are more protected from domestic inflation. Therefore, host country inflation may generate greater volumes of FDI. The second effect appears to be dominant in the case of China as the trends in FDI inflows and inflation over the period 1984-2008 shows that there were a few years, for example the early 90s and late 2000s, when the changes in FDI and inflation moved in the same patterns (Figure 5-1). Figure 5-1: FDI and inflation in China 1984-2008. Source: based on UNCTAD (2010). 5.1.2. India: The explanatory power for India’s models is fairly higher than that for China’s (41.2% compared to 23.8% and 22.9% respectively). However, only infrastructure and trade openness were found to be significant. Infrastructure was negatively correlated with FDI inflows in India. This is in line with the study by Pradhan (2008), however, contrasts with other findings by Green (2005) and Mukim and Nunnenkamp (2010). The negative effect of infrastructure is most likely due to sluggish investment in infrastructural facilities in India. Badale (1998) indicates that the regional differences in infrastructure have become an important location determinant for foreign investors. However, despite the efforts of Indian government to upgrade its infrastructural facilities in recent years, more work is still required to reach the levels comparable to other developing countries. State-controlled physical infrastructure has long been considered as the weakest link in the Indian economy (Steel, 2001). This bottleneck in the form of inadequate infrastructure may discourage FDI flows into the country. According to the world economic forum, backwardness of infrastructure is the most concern for foreign investors while conducting business in India (Figure 5-2). In particular, one of the biggest infrastructure problems is electricity supply (Yallapragda, 2010). Since the state power supply is so uncertain that most businesses have started to use their own power generators. These evidences combined with the model result reinforce the suggestion that poor infrastructure could deter potential foreign investment into the Indian economy. Figure 5-2: The most problematic for doing business in India Source: World Economic Forum (2010). The trends of FDI inflows and trade openness in India during 1984 and 2008 seem to suggest a positive association between openness and FDI (figure 5-3). Figure 5-3: FDI and trade openness in India 1984-2008. Source: based on UNCTAD (2010). The results have verified this relationship: trade openness was found significant and had the predicted positive sign. Its positive impact on FDI inflows confirms the success of India’s policy reforms since 1991. Prior to the reforms, India followed an â€Å"inward-looking import-substituting† regime with â€Å"one of the most complicated and protectionist regime in the world† (IMF, 1998). In particular, the government imposed high import restrictions with quantitative restrictions on 90% of value-added of manufacturing, maximum tariff rate of 400% and significant export controls (Rajan and Sen, 2000). However, following the economic liberalisation in 1991, India has made drastic changes in its trade policy in order to integrate itself with the global economy. India’s average imported weighted rate declined to 27% in 1999, effective protection rate came down to 72% in 1995, export controls were removed and emphasis was placed on promoting exports (Rajan and Sen, 2000). As a result, trade liberalisation has made the transfer of goods and capital into and out of the country easier with lower restrictions, thus stimulating production and reducing costs. Trade openness is, therefore, seen as a major catalyst for inward FDI in India. 5.1.3. China and India: Table 5-2 shows the results for joint model of FDI determinants in China and India. Overall the models passed the auto-correlation tests; however, the R-squared obtained is not very high: the independent variables explain about over 23 % of the variation in the change in FDI inflows in both models. Table 5-2: FDI determinants in China and India INDIA = 1 if India, otherwise 0 Model  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1 2 Constant -0.236 -0.186 Δlninfra 1.776 1.747 Δlntrad 1.084 Δlnpol 0.574 0.713 Δinfla 0.083* 0.094** Δlnex -0.911 -0.918 INDIA 0.421 0.486 ΔlninfraINDIA -3.485 -3.965* ΔlntradINDIA 0.501 ΔlnpolINDIA -0.554 -0.446 ΔinflaINDIA -0.076 -0.094 ΔlnexINDIA 1.345 1.565 N 48 48 R-squared 0.265 0.235 F 1.179 1.298 Autocorrelation (1) 0.2297 -0.02330 Autocorrelation (2) -1.483 -1.610 Note: *** significant at 1% level, ** significant at 5% level, * significant at 10% level. It is expected that there is a considerable difference between China’s and India’s volumes of FDI as illustrated in figure 5-4: generally, FDI inflows in two countries fluctuate over the estimated period. However, China’s FDI seems to follow a downward trend while the trend for India’s seems to move upwards. Figure 5-4 a: Changes in FDI inflows in China, 1984-2008 Source: World Bank (2010).    Figure 5-4b: Changes in FDI inflows in India, 1984-2008 Source: World Bank (2010). The dummy variable used to estimate these differences between the two countries’ FDI, nevertheless, was not statistically significant. Furthermore, the findings show that apart from infrastructure, other factors did not have any significant different effects on FDI inflows in China and India. India’s poor infrastructure is a deterrent for its attraction towards FDI as compared to China. More precisely, the lack of infrastructure reduced the volumes of FDI received by India to around 3.965% less than China. Infrastructure inadequacy is therefore one of the reasons why India is lagging behind China in attracting potential FDI. China has been ahead of India in developing its infrastructure to desirable levels for foreign investment. This can be demonstrated in the case of Chinese special economic zone (SEZ) model. Following the reforms in 1979, SEZs were created and the first one was based in Shenzhen. It used to be a small fishing village and was successfully transformed into one of the most modern cities in the world with 120,000 MNEs in operation, contributing $40 billion to the total GDP and was recently the world’s sixth largest port (Sinha, 2007). India, in comparison, has adopted the Chinese SEZs strategy only over the last decade. However, most of the SEZs are relatively small in size and not reach their full potential. In addition, many Indian ports are undersized, with a high density of traffic and inflicted with poor management (Sinha, 2007). The results also suggest that for both countries, inflation is the determinant of inward FDI but it has unexpected signs. In particular, inflation positively influences FDI. Possible explanations for the positive effect of inflation are the same as discussed in section 5.1.1. 6. Policy implications: Based on the individual country models and the findings from Chinese-Indian joint model, policy suggestions are made to create a more friendly business environment for foreign investment in India. India’s infrastructural bottlenecks have been proved as a major deterrent of FDI flows. India should therefore take a more balanced focus on developing desirable infrastructure throughout the whole country. In particular, Sinha (2007) suggests that India needs to invest at least $300 billion in infrastructure and it could be funded by foreign exchange reserves and public sector equity off-loading (PSU-offloading). Specifically, India has foreign exchange reserves worth more than $150, together with offloading PSU, which can be funded for upgrading infrastructure. Power and electricity is another concern that Indian authority needs to resolve immediately. Power sector has given a return of 26% on government equity in state electricity boards (SEBs) (Economic survey, 2006). Privatizing power distribution companies and SEBs is necessary to improve the efficiency and tackle the long-term problems in inadequate power supply. Furthermore, India should develop high standard transportation and telecommunication networks to better serve the economy. In the telecommunications sector, for example, the penetration of mobiles and telephones has been widely successful and it should continue to benefit all people in the country. In addition, Indian railway is highly below efficiency which should be privatized like Chinese railway. India should also replicate successful stories in the infrastructural efforts it has made. For instance, expressway networks should be established in all metro cities and link all parts of the country. Another infrastructure concern is the creation of SEZs. Although India has adopted the Chinese SEZ model, it has not been really successful. The size and development of those SEZs do not fully reflect the potential of the Indian economy. It is thus crucial that Indian government should consider developing larger SEZs combined with world-class infrastructure, human resources and good management. This would consequently attract MNEs to invest in these SEZs. Moreover, India should build larger ports equipped with good facilities which would help develop â€Å"state of the art† ports that can receive larger ships. Additionally, developing strategic ports in major states could help improve trade and linkage between India and other parts of the world. The second factor determining FDI in India that has been discussed in this study is trade openness. Liberalization of foreign trade policy has brought in substantial benefits for India in terms of trade integration and foreign investment. Trade liberalisation, according to Balasubramanyam and Mahambare (2001), does not means an export promotion strategy being totally favoured. But a neutral regime which neither favour export-oriented industries nor import-substituting industries is appropriate since it provides a comparative advantage to determine the investment distribution between the two groups. Such a neutral regime is likely to attract larger volumes of FDI and promote its efficiency. Creation of export processing zones (EPZs) is another recommended policy to promote exports and attract FDI (Balasubramanyam et al., 1996). Within these EPZs, no restriction on exports of final goods is imposed and duty-free of imports is permitted. It is considered as a small free-trade area and is well provided with infrastructure facilities and telecommunications. In summary, evidence and results from this study have suggested fundamental policies, focusing on infrastructure and trade reforms, to provide congenial investment climate in India for attracting FDI and promote its position comparable to China as a FDI destination. Conclusion: The phenomenon of FDI inflows in developing and transition economies has attracted a significant number of analyses looking into the determinants of FDI in these countries. Based on previous literature and research, this study has attempted to examine important factors shaping FDI in two emerging markets: China and India. India and China are the most favourite FDI destination among developing countries. China was a highly closed economy completely isolating itself from the global economy before 1979. Its closed economic policy almost limited China’s potential development. Eventually, the Chinese government began to liberalise its economic regime and opened its domestic market to the rest of the world. As a result, remarkable volumes of FDI have been attracted into the country. The same picture has been drawn for India since its reforms in 1991: FDI inflows into India have increased rapidly which places it to the second most popular FDI host after China. However, as compared to its neighbour in the East, India is still far behind in terms of volumes of FDI received. India, despite being the world largest democracy with a huge promising market is still overlooked by foreign investors. The study tried to explore this paradox and to investigate the factors driving FDI in China and India. For these purposes, two separate models were developed to identify the determinants of FDI in each country and then a joint model was conducted to compare and explain the difference in FDI between two countries. The individual model suggested that inflation, though concluded with an unexpected sign (coefficient was found to be positive), had significant impact on China’s inward FDI. On the other hand, trade openness and infrastructure proved to be major determinants of FDI in India. The model for both countries indicated that among factors examined, inflation was important for FDI inflows in the two countries. Furthermore, the analysis resulted in no significant difference between China’s and India’s FDI. Infrastructure appeared to be one of the main reasons why India was falling behind China in attracting FDI. Based on those results, policy recommendations have been made to create a congenial business climate in India for improving its attractiveness towards foreign investors. Firstly, Indian government should take immediate actions to resolve the infrastructure bottleneck. This can be achieved by developing strategic infrastructure, popularizing telecommunication and transportation networks, establishing large SEZs and ensuring efficient power supply. Secondly, India needs to create an appropriate trade policy which balances export promotion and import substitution. In addition, growing EPZs with low trade barriers are desirable for attracting MNEs. This study has provided decent explanation for the determinants of FDI in China and India. It has, to some extent, been able to answer the research question on why India is falling behind China in attracting foreign investment. The research, however, has some limitations which need to be addressed in further study. First of all, it was difficult to obtain sufficient data on FDI determinants for India and China over the last twenty five years and hence the number of chosen factors was restricted. This may explain for the low models’ explanatory power and insignificant F-statistics. Also, industry wise study can be conducted to identify which industry is the main contributor to FDI growth in China and India. Finally, this analysis only compares India with China and does not include other emerging economies such as Brazil and Russia. A study on FDI determinants in BRIC countries[4] thus would complete the comparative picture between India and other emerging countries.

How to Write a College Essay on Yourself

How to Write a College Essay on Yourself How to Write a College Essay on Yourself Writing a college essay on yourself is the equivalent of writing a personal statement. You write a personal statement for different purposes, such as when you are making an application for a scholarship, internship, or employment. This means that you have to evaluate the context within which you are writing your college essay. As a college student, you have a lot of pertinent information about yourself that you can include in your college essay. Nonetheless, an excessively wordy essay bores the reader. You do not want the reader to push your essay aside on grounds of it being unnecessarily lengthy. This is why you should adequately understand the context of your essay, and limit the scope to suit the objective. That said, writing a college essay on yourself must begin by an identification of your personal career objective. More often than not, many college students do not identify a succinct career objective until they are in their final academic year. This is all right, provided you can draft an objective as and when required. A viable recommendation to follow when writing a college essay on yourself is to be acquainted with the objective of the organization or group to which you are writing the essay. To the greatest extent possible, you should align your personal objective with the mission of your potential employer or sponsor. However, this must not be a cut-and-paste job, in which you copy mission statement. The objecti ve should come first in your essay, and should be highlighted either in bold or in block letters. After stating the objective, you should furnish the reader with an accurate background of your education. This should begin with the most recent educational achievement. If you are still in college, you should indicate that you are currently in a certain academic year, pursuing a given course in a certain institution. Remember to state the year you joined college. After this, you should indicate any short courses you pursued after completing high school. The next thing to do when writing a college essay on yourself is to list any extracurricular activities that you engage in, or have engaged in in the past. Try as much as possible to resist the temptation of including activities that are of little substance to your potential sponsor or employer. A useful tip to ensure this is to concentrate more on activities that benefit the community and help in skill-acquisition and building. If you regularly take part in voluntary activities, the better for you because chances of your essay being considered a winning one are increased. Additionally, present a short list of between three and five hobbies that do not portray you as a person who loves so much fun. It is not bad to have fun, but remember you need to impress the reader that you are a focused person. As a word of caution, keep your personal essay as truthful as possible. Your professor knows a lot about you, so avoid lying. Are you looking for the best place to buy a college essay online? Why not to try !?

Research/ Detail Paper of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People Research

/ Detail of the Religion of the Sunni Muslim People - Research Paper Example Although several branches of Islam exist, Sunni Muslims are the largest by followership, accounting for about 80 percent of the world’s Muslim population, followed by the Shi’a at approximately 10 percent. As a branch of Islam, the Sunni emerged in the 7th century C.E. in the Middle East after disagreements arose over who would succeed Prophet Muhammad. At the height of the disagreement, the Sunni advocated for the selection of a successor (also referred to as caliph) by the entire Muslim community, but the Shi’a believed that Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and also cousin, had been chosen by the prophet to succeed him. This paper will research specific features and viewpoints of the Sunni Muslim and describe their past, present and future. It will further highlight their conflicts and where they stand on the worldview and in the eyes of the US government and the Taliban. At this point, it is important to mention that the defining belief of the Taliban is Sunn i Islam; however, their interpretation and practice of Islam, including Sharia law and female brutality, informed scholars’ decision to refer to them as fundamentalists or extremists (Goodson, 2002). The term Sunni is derived from the word Sunnah, which is an Arabic term that translates into â€Å"the traditions of Prophet Muhammad†. The Sunni Muslims agree with the other Islamic branches on many practical and theological aspects. This is because Islamic life stems from and is defined by Sharia (or Islamic) law. However, the areas that are unique to Sunni Muslims and set them apart from the start include the fact that they developed and grew from a controversy; they do not agree with claims that a successor was named by the prophet; they believed that companions of the prophet had authoritative leadership; and they relied on the consensus of scholars and religion. More contemporarily is their typical emphasis of Allah’s power and how he determines human fate. Th eir definition of what it entails being a Muslim is more inclusive, and that is why their tradition places prominence on the functions of religion in family (such as marriage, inheritance, divorce), political and public life (Goodson, 2002). For a better insight into Sunni Muslims, the research will be split into sections. Further, because the essence of Sunni Muslims is founded on their differences with the Shi’a Muslims, comparisons between the two will be used for the purpose of emphasis. History Although the Sunni would later develop theological and legal traditions and structures over the centuries, its fundamental origins are embedded in the caliph succession dispute. The 632 C.E. death of Muhammad pitted the Muslim community into a leadership wrangle because Muhammad did not have living heirs, who were required to be male. Without one that the community could agree upon, it followed that they split along the lines of choice of a leader, ending up with the Sunni and Shi ’a. Each sect had several subdivisions, but the Sunni and the Shi’a still represent the key divide in Islam (Johnson, 2010). Those who did not back the leadership of Ali adopted the name Sunni, which is a term that derives from ahl al-sunna wa al-jamaa. This is an Arabic phrase referring to a group of people who consider themselves to follow the ways of the prophet and are people of the community. They decided that the next caliph should come from the Quraysh tribe, to which the prophet belonged. Literature on Sunni history indicates that while the prophet

Developmental Milestones Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Developmental Milestones - Essay Example Children have widely individual characteristics and develop different skills at different paces. â€Å"The interactive influences of genes and experience literally shape the architecture of the developing brain, and the active ingredient is the ‘serve and return’ nature of children’s engagement in relationships with their parents and other caregivers in their family or community† (NSCDC, 2007:1). For the most part, parents’ instincts are usually the best indicator that development is not going right. Parents should therefore trust these instincts, and not be overly stressed because babies can feel and react to stress in their caregivers. What is important is for parents to provide their babies with sufficient care and stimulation, to make sure that they eat and sleep well, and most of all, to show them that they are loved. Children bask in the love of their parents, and affection conveyed through words, touch, and â€Å"just being there† is pr obably the best stimulus for development that any young child could ever

How to develop a culture of safety in health care organizations Essay

How to develop a culture of safety in health care organizations - Essay Example Unfortunately, this culture led to many incidents not to be reported. To combat this problem, health-workers are encouraged to report problems instead of hiding them, so that they can be solved in time. To develop a culture of safety in health organizations, cultures are accessed occasionally so as to make amicable changes where necessary. Additionally, teamwork is highly recommended so as to avoid the occurrence of blame games and negligence of risky incidents. Most organizations also advocate the participation of the patient in the treatment process so as to create good communication system between healthcare personnel and patients (Duke University Medical Center, 2005). Additionally, involvement of patients in the treatment process leads to physicians observing rules and regulations to the later so as to minimize the occurrence of accidents within health-centers. Routine check-up and update of healthcare systems have also been found effective in developing a culture of safety in health organizations. Thus, many healthcare organizations not only maintain, but also update their systems in order to catch up with technological advancements that aid in enhancing patients’ safe ty. Additionally, most health organizations also advocate openness among its employees so as to enhance patients, workers, and personnel safety within healthcare environment (Duke University Medical Center, 2005). Rule of accountability has also been found effective in developing a culture of safety in healthcare organizations. It achieves this by ensuring all the healthcare providers do their respective jobs

Discussion Board Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Discussion Board - Coursework Example Despite the sinful nature of humanity, god is prepared through the use of His power to save the world from sins or problems and restore their initial nature according to God’s promises (Lee, 2010). In my opinion, I totally agree with Paul’s view of the human nature according to Romans 1:18-32. In the contemporary society human nature has been corrupted to reflect the sinful nature of the world. For instance human nature is filled with sinful desires such as homosexuality. The world has experienced a lot of problems and issues as a result of the sinful nature f human beings. Furthermore, it is evident that humanity as a result of its sinful nature has problems. Human beings have turned away from the worship of the one and true God and instead engaged themselves in the worship of idols. Money is considered as an idol of worship among human beings in the contemporary society. Hence, I totally agree with Paul’s view in relation to the nature of

The Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

The Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin - Essay Example The rival troops rumbled over Jerusalem because there was a lot of tension and the Holy City was weakened. The Templar and Hospitaler Knights were continuously at logger heads. The battle of Hattin decimated the soldiers and Knight of the Latin States. On 2nd October 1187, Saladin captured the Holy city. The Muslims clambered up and removed the crosses that had been mounted by the Crusaders on the Cupola of the Dome of the Rock. Islam controlled Jerusalem from that day until the 20th century. Challiton, who was a cruel Crusader Is known to have massacred Muslim pilgrims because they steps on his turf. This seems to have instigated Saladin and his army to capture Jerusalem in their vow to revenge the action of Challiton. Additionally, at that time Jerusalem had difficulties with their leadership and this made them predisposed to enemy attack. Saladin and his army took over the Holy Land. The significance of Jerusalem in Muslim lore increased over the years. Saladin had sworn that he would stop killing the Christians after they had taken over the city. This story is of much significance at it gives a history of where the Muslims and the Christians started to have disputes each other. This is a conflict that is still taking place up to date. This story gives as the real facts of what events took place before Saladin, a Muslim leader took over Jerusalem .If we compare him to Challiton, the Crusader’s leader we can deduce that Saladin was a noble man that stood to his words. His courage, moderation and justice were character traits that seemed to have earned him lasting respect. This reading gives a history of a famous leader, Saladin in relation to the fall of Jerusalem. I believe that Saladin had every right to take over Jerusalem as it was being managed by wicked leaders. The part I enjoyed most was the character displayed by Saladin. His adherence to the ideal of Justice and magnanimity as well as his leadership skills will be

Discussion Board Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Discussion Board - Coursework Example Despite the sinful nature of humanity, god is prepared through the use of His power to save the world from sins or problems and restore their initial nature according to God’s promises (Lee, 2010). In my opinion, I totally agree with Paul’s view of the human nature according to Romans 1:18-32. In the contemporary society human nature has been corrupted to reflect the sinful nature of the world. For instance human nature is filled with sinful desires such as homosexuality. The world has experienced a lot of problems and issues as a result of the sinful nature f human beings. Furthermore, it is evident that humanity as a result of its sinful nature has problems. Human beings have turned away from the worship of the one and true God and instead engaged themselves in the worship of idols. Money is considered as an idol of worship among human beings in the contemporary society. Hence, I totally agree with Paul’s view in relation to the nature of

Daoism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Daoism - Essay Example e parts of the Yin-Yang symbol manifest diametrically opposite principles, which have permeated into every phenomena in people’s existence, that is, life and death, male and female, hot and cold, reflections and absence of thought, action and inaction. According to the principle of Yin and Yang all things are characterized by the presence of both male and female parts, being a manifestation of dark and light. Consequently, the basic concept of Daoism is a balanced approach to all phenomena of nature and their adjustment in the context of an inequilibrium. Another important composite part of Daoism philosophy can be found in the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), which is attributed to Laozi, the founder of Daoism. As a matter of fact, it appears that the author is unknown, as Laozi is not his truly name and only a nickname in the meaning of a wise elder. The title of the scripture in its turn may be translated as the book of the path and virtue. According to the legend, in the decline of years Laozi has decided to leave China and went to the West. Passing through a frontier post, Laozi has been asked by its chief to leave a book in memory of him, which would reflect the wise old man’s thoughts about the path of peace and human’s way in it (Orbinski-Vonk, 2012). This is the very way of the Daodejing appearance. Its importance is great for Chinese history and culture, since it is a document of Ancient China’s thought. Moreover, it is considered to be one of the classical works of Daoism. The views set forth in it have made a massive impact on subsequent development of China’s philosophy. Daoism being a part of traditional cultural heritage serves as a complex component of spiritual culture of modern China. Reflecting the ethnic and cultural peculiarities, it becomes a powerful direct and indirect impact factor. Specifically, Daoist ideals find their expression through art acting as means of expression of thoughts and feelings of people seeking penetration into

It is not only Hamlet who is transformed Essay Example for Free

It is not only Hamlet who is transformed Essay Something have you heard of Hamlets transformation It is not only Hamlet who is transformed: the concepts of transformation and decay are at the centre of the play both for Shakespeares audience and for modern theatregoers. Discuss. The opening scene of Hamlet is one filled with nervousness and emotional tension. Shakespeare shows this through the language of his characters. Barnardos first line of Whos there followed by Franciscos reply of Nay, answer me. reveals to the audience the agitation of the sentinels. This unstable atmosphere continues throughout the scene and the audience find out that there is a threat from Fortinbras to attack Denmark and the old king has died. Certainty dissolves into rumour showing there is also dislocation in Denmarks society At least the whisper goes so as the people are uncertain about what is going to happen. The play speaks of a strange eruption to the state and so it could be argued that Denmark has gone through a transformation of political power and the state itself has changed. This is because Marcellus speaks of the old Denmark and how hallowd and so gracious is that time when the nights were wholesome. The new Denmark, on the other hand, is a place where the dead are restless and the future of the country is uncertain. The theme of political instability was a significant factor for a 17th century audience who had experienced similar traumas. England had struggled to raise a navy to meet the Spanish Armada in 1588. Shakespeares Denmark is in a state in jeopardy- just as England was after the death of Elizabeth as the public awaited to see who would succeed the throne. Shakespeares first audience could see a scene of their own recent history- and an unsettling reminder of their uncertain future. Like the sentinels, an audience in the 1600s would feel uneasy and sense the dislocation of Denmark. A modern audience understands the instability in the opening scene, however, they would not necessarily be fully aware of its intenseness, as there are different attitudes towards kings and the transmission of power of one regime to the next today. Nevertheless, the opening scene has a dramatic impact on both audiences and although an audience in 1600 would relate to the transformation of the state more than an audience in 2003, both audiences understand that Something is rotten in the state of Denmark. The instability of the natural world affects the different audiences in different ways. The entrance of the Ghost had particular significance to Shakespeares audience; religion and the state were intertwined; ghosts walked the earth and their return signified unfinished business, a threat to the state or buried treasure. In this case, the ghost is seen wearing armour showing that evil must have occurred which harmed the former king: My fathers spirit in arms! All is not well. I doubt some foul play. The arrival of the Ghost establishes the break between this world and the next, the natural and the supernatural. This adds to the idea of transformation of Denmark that has gone from a place of natural stability into a state of constant turmoil where the supernatural and natural are combined. There is a greater dramatic impact on Shakespeares audience when the Ghost arrives because they believed in the supernatural world and therefore would understand this unstableness in the state. Modern audiences, however, would not be fully aware of how significant the arrival of the Ghost is in the play. More people today do not believe in such things as ghosts and the supernatural realm. However, modern audiences would sense that there has been a transformation in the natural order of Denmark, the reasons for this change such as political and moral instability would affect the audience more than the supernatural aspect of the play. Moral issues in Hamlet add to the idea that the state has been transformed. Both audiences would have been shocked to discover the marriage between Claudius and Gertrude having found out that Claudius is the dead kings brother. Shakespeare shows us disgust through the language of his characters. Hamlets line of: O most wicked speed! To post with such dexterity to incestuous sheets! has hissing sibilants that truly show the disgust of the prince and therefore the audience. Shakespeare also emphasises Hamlets repulsion repeatedly with vivid sexual imageries, In the rank sweat of an enseamed bed furthermore increasing our disgust of incest between the Bloat King and his queen. Some among Hamlets first audience would recognise this marriage as a parallel to English history. Claudius kills a king and assumes his throne. Henry VII killed King Richard III at Bosworth and founded a Tudor dynasty on a flawed pedigree. Claudius marries Gertrude his late brothers wife as Henry VIII married his brothers widow, Katharine of Aragon. Shakespeares audience knew how England had suffered because of the immoral involvement between the royals, such as incest and murder, so they could predict that Denmark will suffer because of its king as England did. By relating his play to parts of recent history, Shakespeare relies on his audience to supply the details of what is to come.